The Articles of Confederation & Foreign Concerns and Policies

The Articles of Confederation—adopted during the American Revolution and in effect until the ratification of the U.S. Constitution—represented the United States’ first attempt at a national government. However, the Articles’ weaknesses in foreign policy and governance created significant challenges, leaving the new nation vulnerable to both external threats and diplomatic marginalization. The period was marked by difficulties in maintaining sovereignty, addressing economic pressures and navigating alliances and conflicts with European powers.

One of the central weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation was its lack of a strong central government, which severely hampered the United States’ ability to conduct foreign affairs effectively. The Articles granted Congress the authority to negotiate treaties, declare war, and manage foreign relations. However, Congress lacked the power to enforce its decisions, raise revenue through taxes, or compel states to comply with treaties. This decentralized structure undermined the United States’ ability to present a unified front to foreign nations.

One of the most pressing foreign concerns involved relations with Britain, the former colonial power. The 1783 Treaty of Paris ended the Revolutionary War and granted the United States independence and territorial rights. However, the implementation of the treaty’s terms became a source of tension. In violation of the treaty, Britain retained military posts in the Northwest Territory, arguing that the U.S. had failed to honor its commitments to restore property to Loyalists and repay prewar debts. The Articles’ lack of enforcement power left Congress unable to compel the states to comply with these obligations, prolonging disputes and straining relations with Britain.

Moreover, British policies disrupted American commerce. The Royal Navy restricted U.S. trade with the British West Indies, a critical market for American goods, while British manufacturers flooded American markets, creating economic imbalances. The Confederation government’s inability to regulate trade or negotiate effectively with Britain deepened these challenges, weakening the American economy and exacerbating regional tensions.

Spain posed another significant foreign policy challenge during this period. While Spain had been an ally of the United States during the Revolutionary War, its interests in the postwar era often clashed with those of the new nation. Spain controlled the Mississippi River, a vital trade route for settlers in the western territories. In 1784, Spain closed the river to American navigation, crippling the economy of the western frontier and fueling discontent among settlers.

The Confederation Congress lacked the leverage to resolve the dispute effectively. Negotiations with Spain, led by John Jay, proposed a treaty that would have granted limited access to the Mississippi in exchange for other concessions. However, this approach was deeply unpopular among western settlers and their advocates, who viewed unrestricted access to the river as essential to their economic survival. The inability to reach a resolution highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles in addressing regional and national interests.

France, which had provided critical military and financial support during the Revolution, also became a source of foreign concern. The French government expected repayment of wartime loans and sought to maintain its influence over the United States. However, the Confederation government’s inability to raise revenue made it difficult to meet these financial obligations, straining the U.S.-French alliance.

Additionally, the French Revolution, which began in 1789, created uncertainty in Franco-American relations. While this occurred at the end of the Articles of Confederation’s tenure, the ideological and political shifts in France foreshadowed challenges in navigating alliances with European powers as the United States moved toward a new constitutional framework.

The weakness of the Confederation government was particularly evident in its inability to establish favorable trade agreements. European powers, including Britain and Spain, exploited the lack of a cohesive American trade policy to their advantage. Each state retained the ability to regulate its own commerce, leading to conflicting policies and undermining collective bargaining efforts. This fragmentation weakened the United States’ position in global markets and reduced its ability to protect domestic industries.

Piracy along the Barbary Coast presented another significant issue. American merchant ships, no longer protected by British naval power, became frequent targets of North African pirates. Without a navy or the financial resources to pay ransoms or tributes, the United States struggled to secure the safety of its maritime commerce. This highlighted the limitations of the Articles in defending national interests and contributed to calls for a stronger central government.

Foreign concerns during the Confederation period were not limited to interactions with European powers. Relations with American Indian tribes also posed significant challenges. Many tribes, particularly in the Northwest Territory, resisted American expansion and maintained alliances with Britain, which provided them with arms and support. The inability of the Confederation government to manage these conflicts effectively further underscored its weaknesses.

Territorial disputes with Spain and Britain compounded the difficulties of westward expansion. Spain’s control of Florida and its alliance with American Indian tribes in the region created tensions along the southern frontier. Meanwhile, British support for Indian resistance in the Ohio Valley hindered American settlement and contributed to ongoing instability.

The cumulative impact of these foreign concerns revealed the inadequacies of the Articles of Confederation and fueled demands for a stronger federal government. Prominent leaders, including George Washington, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, argued that the United States needed a central authority capable of managing foreign affairs, regulating commerce, and ensuring national security. These concerns played a crucial role in the movement toward the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which ultimately produced a new framework for governance.

Further Reading:

• We Have Not a Government: The Articles of Confederation and the Road to the Constitution by George William Van Cleve (University of Chicago Press, 2019)