The Federalist Papers
The Federalist Papers are a collection of 85 essays/articles that were written by supporters of the ratification of the Constitution in the fall of 1787 and spring of 1788. The intent of the essays was to sway public opinion—particularly in New York—towards supporting ratification of the newly proposed Constitution. All written anonymously under the pen name “Publius,” the papers are still instrumental in understanding the basis of the new system of Federal government that was proposed.
The Federal Convention (Constitutional Convention) in Philadelphia adjourned on September 17, 1787. Quickly, those in support of the proposed Constitution began to campaign across the states to garner public support. Each state was to hold a ratification convention to join the new Federal government. The larger states, such as New York and Virginia, were skeptical of the centralization of government authority, and it became clear that an active editorial might be necessary to convince public opinion to support ratification.
Three men took the lead in this campaign: Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. Hamilton was a Revolutionary War veteran and current member of the New York state legislature. James Madison, a Virginia politician, had been instrumental in the sessions of the Federal Convention. John Jay served in New York jurist and had been a diplomat representing the United States in Spain during the Revolutionary War. As the lead author, Hamilton authored 51 of the essays, with Madison authoring 29 and Jay contributing 5 essays.
These three men wrote and placed articles in various New York publications, though the articles were quickly shared to other states. Wanting to keep their identify anonymous, Hamilton chose the pen name “Publius.” Many historians believe that Hamilton chose Publius to honor the Roman philosopher Publius Valerius Publicola. The Roman Publius played a significant role in helping to establish the Roman Republic. The three men writing under this pen name also played a significant role in establishing the new American Republic.
The Federalist Papers were first published in New York newspapers—The Independent Journal, The New York Packet and The Daily Advertiser. They were numbered in order of publication and are usually referred to by those numbers—like Federalist No. 3. The essays targeted New York’s ratification debate, as the state was seen as pivotal due to its size and influence. Later, the articles were compiled and printed in two volumes.
The Federalist Papers laid out some of the basic tenets of the new Federal Government and the creation of the republic. These included the need for a strong Union. Federalist Nos. 1-14 argue that the Union's survival depends on a strong central government to address issues such as defense, commerce, and interstate relations. Federalist No. 39 and 51 lay out the basic principles of federalism with the separation of powers, with necessary checks and balances designed to prevent totalitarianism.
National leaders on both sides of the debate were aware of possible sectionalism. Federalist No. 10 written by James Madison addresses the problem of factions and how a large republic can mitigate their effects by diluting their influence. Other controversial portions were focused on the branches of government and their authority. Federalist No. 70 defends the need for a single executive (the Presidency) to ensure accountability and effective governance. Federalist No. 78 explains the judiciary’s role and the importance of judicial review.
Hamilton went on the attack by critiquing the current framework of government under the Articles of Confederation. Hamilton pointed out the many flaws focusing on their inability to provide for common defense or maintain public order. The states must give up some of their sovereignty and self-rule for the greater good of the whole. Also Hamilton took on the accusations of the secrecy of the Philadelphia Convention, arguing that to allow the delegates the ability to discuss and debate the tenants of the future republic without fear of public reproach.
The Federalist Papers played a crucial role in shaping the debate over the Constitution. Although they were primarily intended to influence New York’s ratification convention, their arguments resonated broadly. The Constitution was eventually ratified in 1788, with New York narrowly approving it.
The essays' immediate impact on public opinion is often debated. The Federalist Papers were not universally read at the time, and many Anti-Federalists remained unconvinced. However, they provided a systematic defense of the Constitution that has endured over time.
In the early 19th century, the Federalist Papers gained prominence as authoritative interpretations of the Constitution. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall cited them in landmark cases like Marbury v. Madison (1803) and McCulloch v. Maryland (1819). Today, the essays are frequently referenced in constitutional law and political theory.
The Federalist Papers remain essential reading for anyone studying the Constitution or American political philosophy. They provide insight into the framers' intentions and the challenges of balancing government power with individual liberty. Some scholars, however, critique their elitist tone and tendency to downplay democratic participation, reflecting the framers' skepticism of direct democracy.
Despite these criticisms, the Federalist Papers are celebrated as a masterful articulation of republican government principles. Their enduring relevance lies in their exploration of timeless issues, including the balance between state and federal authority, the dangers of factionalism, and the need for institutional safeguards against tyranny.
The Federalist Papers were a strategic response to a defining moment in American history. They offered a compelling vision of a unified republic capable of addressing the challenges of governance while safeguarding liberty. Over two centuries later, they continue to inform debates about the U.S. Constitution, demonstrating the foresight and intellectual rigor of their authors.
Further Reading:
- The Federalist Papers (Project Gutenberg).
- Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow (The Penguin Press, 2004).
